Building Parent-Teacher Relationships

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Allen, TX: DLM Teaching Resources; 1989. Because of a developing awareness of the importance of the bridge between home and school, schools have reached out to families and families have pressed to be heard in schools. The manner in which schools communicate and interact with parents affects the extent and quality of parents' home involvement with their children's learning.

Educational Horizons, 77 1 , 15-17. New York: Teachers College Press. Because three of the four measures of relationship constructs were completed by the teacher, who also completed ratings of child engagement, shared source may account for some of the association found between the relationship constructs and child engagement.

The Importance of Building Parent-Teacher Relationships

We are experimenting with display styles that make it easier to read articles in PMC. The ePub format is best viewed in the iBooks reader. You may notice problems with the display of certain parts of an article in other eReaders. Generating an ePub file may take a long time, please be patient. Participants were 443 52. The hypothesized model provided a good fit to the data. African American children and their parents, relative to Hispanic and Caucasian children and their parents, had less supportive relationships with teachers. Implications of these findings for teacher preparation are discussed. When students experience a sense of belonging at school and supportive relationships with teachers and classmates, they are motivated to participate actively and appropriately in the life of the classroom ; ;. Positive relations with teachers in the classroom and between home and school appear to be less common for low-income and racial minority children than for higher income, White students ; ; ; ;. Furthermore, several researchers have suggested that these early racial and income differences in relatedness may contribute to disparities in achievement ;. The need to improve the academic achievement among ethnic minority and poor families is one of the most urgent challenges facing education and U. For example, according to the National Assessment of Educational Progress , in 2005, 41% of White fourth graders were proficient in reading, compared with 13% of Black and 16% of Hispanic students. Results for math were similar, with 47% of White students proficient compared with 13% of Black and 19% of Hispanic students. In the next sections, we provide the empirical and theoretical support for each link in this complex model. First, we present evidence on gender and racial disparities in student—teacher and parent—teacher relationship quality. Third, we present evidence to support the premise that student motivation and engagement in classroom learning activities are the proximal processes accounting for the effect of relationship quality on achievement. Not surprising, students who exhibit under-controlled or aggressive behaviors establish relationships with teachers characterized by lower levels of support and acceptance and higher levels of conflict ;. Of particular interest to this investigation are findings that minority, especially African American, children and children of low socioeconomic status SES are less likely than Caucasian or higher SES children to enjoy supportive relationships with teachers ; ; ;. Although the reasons for these differences are not known, the fact that the teacher workforce in the United States is predominantly Caucasian and middle class may contribute to racial and income differences in teacher—student relationship quality. In 2003—2004, 84% of elementary teachers in the United States were Caucasian. Conversely, 42% of elementary children in 2003 were part of an ethnic minority. The ethnic imbalance between teachers and students gains in significance in light of several studies reporting that teacher—child ethnicity match is associated with more positive teacher ratings of closeness ;. Perhaps teachers are more attuned to children who share their racial or ethnic background and are, therefore, more accurate in interpreting their behavior and performance and more responsive to their needs ;. The finding that African American children experience less supportive relationships with teachers may also be explained by racial differences in behavioral orientation and academic task engagement. Similarly, minority and low-SES parents experience less positive relationships with teachers and engage in fewer school involvement activities than do Caucasian and higher SES parents for review, see. Teachers perceive ethnic minority parents as engaging in fewer involvement behaviors and as less cooperative than Caucasian parents. Other studies have reported that minority parents endorse attitudes toward education similar to those of Caucasian parents and exhibit levels of involvement in home-based parent involvement activities similar to, if not higher than, those of Caucasian parents. Unfortunately, data on the frequency of teacher—parent misunderstandings for matched and mismatched ethnicity dyads are not available. Furthermore, an effect for teacher—student relationship quality assessed in kindergarten on achievement is found up to 8 years later, controlling for relevant baseline child characteristics. Several studies have reported specific links between teacher—student relationship quality and student engagement for review, see. Engagement has been defined in different ways by different investigators, but it most often refers to behavioral engagement as indexed by cooperative participation, conformity to classroom rules and routines, self-directedness, persistence, and effort. Students who enjoy a close and supportive relationship with a teacher are more engaged in that they work harder in the classroom, persevere in the face of difficulties, accept teacher direction and criticism, cope better with stress, and attend more to the teacher M. These findings hold when relationship quality is assessed by the teacher , , the student ; ; , or observers. Thus, children with lower school readiness competencies are less likely to receive the teacher support that might enhance their adaptive classroom engagement and learning. Furthermore, those children who are most at-risk for school failure on the basis of level of behavioral adjustment, quality of parenting, low SES, or ethnic minority status are most affected by the quality of their relationships with teachers ;. For example, found that supportive student—teacher relationships were more predictive of reading skills for African American than for Caucasian students. Several researchers have distinguished between parent involvement behaviors or activities and the quality of the parent—teacher relationship ; ;. Parent involvement behaviors include volunteering at school, communicating with the teacher, attending school functions, and assisting with homework. Parent—teacher relationship quality refers to the affective quality of the home—school connection, as indexed by trust, mutuality, affiliation, support, shared values, and shared expectations and beliefs about each other and the child. Numerous studies with samples differing in ethnicity and income have demonstrated that both of these dimensions of the home—school mesosystem are associated with student academic engagement and achievement. Classroom Engagement and Achievement Not surprising, children who are actively engaged in classroom learning activities as indexed by effort, persistence, attention, and cooperative participation achieve at a higher level for review, see. In support of this view, reported that negative patterns of classroom participation e. Teacher support is best considered a component of the classroom context that interacts with other aspects of the context in exerting its influence on student engagement. Among the other contextual features of classrooms known to influence student engagement are classroom goal structure for review, see , classroom task structures , teacher frame of reference , and peer acceptance. Consistent with a transactional theory perspective, these classroom processes are expected to exert their influence via reciprocal causal processes. Purpose of This Study The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between student background variables, the quality of early school relationships i. On the basis of and , we expected the association between teacher support and student engagement to be reciprocal. Participants Participants were 443 52. Participants were recruited across two sequential cohorts in first grade during the fall of 2001 and 2002. Children were eligible to participate in the longitudinal study if they a scored below the median score on a state-approved, district-administered measure of literacy administered in either May of kindergarten or September of first grade and b had not been previously retained in first grade. Of 1,374 children who were eligible to participate in the larger study, 1,316 were classified by the school district as African American, Caucasian, or Hispanic, a criterion for inclusion in this study. Written parental consent for study inclusion was obtained for 742 56. Children with and without consent to participate did not differ on age, gender, ethnic status, bilingual class placement, eligibility for free or reduced lunch, or literacy test scores. A total of 443 59. Children with and without complete data did not differ on any demographic variables or study variables at baseline, with one exception. On the basis of family income, 62. The ethnic composition for the 133 teachers 92. The mean years of teaching experience was 4. Design Overview During the months of November through March of Year 1, when study participants were in first grade, research staff individually administered tests of reading and math achievement. These tests were readministered the next school year. In March of Year 1, teachers were mailed a questionnaire packet for each study participant. Academic achievement The Woodcock—Johnson III WJ-III Tests of Achievement is an individually administered measure of academic achievement for individuals ages 2 to adulthood. For our purposes, we used the WJ-III Broad Reading W scores Letter—Word Identification, Reading Fluency, Passage Comprehension subtests and the WJ-III Broad Mathematics W scores Calculations, Math Fluency, and Math Calculation Skills subtests. Broad Reading and Broad Mathematics W scores are based on the Rasch measurement model, yielding an equal interval scale, which facilitates modeling growth in the underlying latent achievement. Extensive research documents the reliability and construct validity of the WJ-III and its predecessor ;. The 1-year stability for this age group ranges from. The Batería Woodcock—Muñoz: Pruebas de Aprovechamiento—Revisada Batería —R; is the comparable Spanish version of the Woodcock—Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery—Revised WJ—R; , the precursor of the WJ-III. The Woodcock Compuscore program yields W scores for the Batería—R that are comparable to W scores on the WJ—R. The Broad Reading and Broad Mathematics W scores were used in this study. Child engagement Child engagement was measured by a teacher-report, 10-item scale comprising 8 items from the Conscientious scale of the Big Five Inventory BFI; and 2 items taken from the Social Competence Scale that were consistent with our definition of classroom engagement effort, attention, persistence, and cooperative participation in learning. Although the Big Five Inventory is conceptualized as a measure of personality traits, the selected items from the Conscientious scale are similar to items used by other researchers to assess classroom engagement ;. The internal consistency of these 10 items for our sample was. Teacher perception of student—teacher support The 22-item Teacher Relationship Inventory TRI; is based on the Network of Relationships Inventory. Teachers indicate on a 5-point Likert-type scale their level of support 16 items or conflict 6 items in their relationships with individual students. An exploratory factor analysis on 335 first-grade participants from the first cohort of the larger study suggested three factors: Support 13 items , Intimacy 3 items , and Conflict 6 items. Furthermore, the null hypothesis of factor invariance across cohorts and times could be retained at the. Because the Intimacy and Support scales were moderately correlated. The internal consistency was. In a longitudinal study of behaviorally at-risk elementary students, the TRI Support score predicted changes in behavioral adjustment and peer relationships. Teacher perception of parent—teacher relationship We developed the teacher-report home—school relationship questionnaire to assess parent involvement in education. The measure was initially derived from a pool of 28 items rated on a 1—5 scale. Twenty-one items were adapted from the Parent—Teacher Involvement Questionnaire—Teacher-Report , and 7 items were adapted from the teacher version of the Joining scale of the Parent—Teacher Relationship Scale. An exploratory factor analysis based on the teachers of 311 first-grade children in the first cohort participating in the larger study yielded a three-factor solution that accounted for 57. Research assistants individually interviewed children at school. Children were asked to nominate as few or as many classmates as they wished who could best play each of several parts in a class play. They like to talk to their teachers, and their teachers enjoy spending time with them. What kids in your class are like this? Sociometric scores were standardized within classrooms. Because reliable and valid sociometric data can be collected through the use of the unlimited nomination approach when as few as 40% of children in a classroom participate , sociometric scores were computed only for children located in classrooms in which more than 40% of classmates participated in the sociometric assessment. A total of 182 of 784 children were eliminated from the study because of missing sociometric data. The mean rate of classmate participation in sociometric administrations was. Results The hypothesized model is shown in. The bolded arrows indicate the hypothesized mediation effects, which involve the parent—teacher relationship and the student—teacher relationship constructs and teacher-rated child engagement as mediators. Zero-Order Correlations for All Continuous Variables in the Theoretical Model The theoretical structural model was examined by using maximum likelihood estimation with robust standard errors and a mean-adjusted chi-square statistic test MLR;. To account for the dependency among the observations students within clusters classrooms , we conducted analyses using the complex analysis feature in Mplus Version 3. The use of multiple reporters and methods to measure relationship constructs reduces potential bias due to a shared method of measurement or reporter between the predictor i. The hypothesized model included only indirect effects of gender and ethnicity on Time 1 engagement and on reading and math at Time 1 and Time 2. The original theoretical model was analyzed and the mediation-related path coefficients were all significant, but the overall model fit was not fully satisfactory. To improve the overall model fit, we modified the model by adding the direct paths from the ethnic contrasts to engagement and to Time 1 reading and Time 1 math and the direct paths from gender to engagement and both Time 1 and Time 2 math. These modifications are consistent with a model positing both indirect and direct effects of background variables on academic engagement and achievement. Because the modifications were theoretically tenable and improved fit, they were incorporated into the revised model. The residual variances between the teacher-reported home—school relationship variables and teacher-rated support were allowed to correlate because these measures are completed by the same source, and allowing the errors to correlate significantly improved model fit. To address the missingness, we also analyzed the modified model with the full data i. We found a very similar pattern of results i. Modified theoretical model with the relationship constructs and teacher-perceived engagement as mediators adjusted for dependency. Because ethnicity was dummy coded, with African American students as the reference group, the positive effects of the ethnicity variables on both relationship constructs indicated that both Caucasian and Hispanic students had higher scores on both relationship constructs than did African American students although the effect for the ethnicity contrast between Caucasian and African American students was significant only with the full data. Moreover, the positive effects of both relationship constructs on teacher-rated child engagement indicated that both relationship constructs are associated with higher child engagement. According to procedure see also , for more updated information , the first step in testing the mediation effect is to establish a significant relation between the predictor and outcome variables, although this is not a rigidly required step ; ;. The second and third steps, respectively, are to establish a significant relation between the predictor and mediator variables and a significant relation between the mediator and outcome variables. The final step involves testing the significance of the mediated effect. The mediated effect is tested by multiplying the path coefficients from Steps 2 and 3. A significant mediated effect suggests that the mediator partially or fully explains the relation between the predictor and outcome. According to procedure, the mediation effects can be tested by multiplying the nonstandardized path coefficients corresponding to the mediation effects. Following steps, a structural model with proximal direct relations or cross-sectional relations between the ethnicity contrasts and engagement was examined. On the other hand, the distal direct effects or longitudinal direct effects of both relationship constructs on the WJ-III Reading and Math scores measured in the following year after controlling for the previous year WJ-III Reading and Math scores were not significant. Hence, we proceeded to the second and third steps and examined the hypothesized longitudinal mediation effects. The tests of all hypothesized mediation effects are summarized in. The results presented in indicate that both relationship constructs significantly mediated the relations between the ethnicity contrasts and engagement. Similarly, engagement significantly mediated the longitudinal relations between both relationship constructs and the WJ-III Reading and Math scores in the following year after controlling for the previous WJ-III Reading and Math scores. For the parent—teacher relationship, 4. For teacher-rated child engagement, 35. Because of the use of a robust estimator, the Satorra—Bentler adjusted chi-square difference test was adopted to examine the possible group difference on the mediation effects. None of the adjusted chi-square difference tests was significant, indicating that all the mediation effects were invariant across different gender and ethnic groups. Furthermore, the effect of student—teacher and parent—teacher relationship quality in first grade on achievement the following year is indirect, via child classroom engagement. Achievement was measured with an individually administered and psychometrically sound measure of reading and math achievement in Year 1 and 1 year later. Thus, results cannot be explained by shared method in measuring relationship variables and achievement. The finding that relationship and engagement variables predict measured academic achievement the following year, when controlling for Year 1 achievement, although expected, is noteworthy given the stability of achievement from Year 1 to Year 2. The study is the first to use a prospective design to test the effects of relationship quality on achievement in the early grades, controlling for baseline achievement, and to test the processes that account for the effect of relationship quality on achievement. Whereas we found a concurrent effect of engagement on reading achievement, we did not find an effect on math achievement. The difference may be due to the fact that reading and literacy instruction consumes approximately twice the amount of classroom time in these first-grade classrooms as math instruction does. Thus, there may be more opportunities for student effort and attention to influence reading outcomes than math outcomes. It was important to determine whether the ethnicity contrasts would predict relationship variables if SES were included in the model. Unfortunately, SES was available for only 227 of the 443 participants. Future research should address factors that contribute to these differences. Several possibilities may explain the lower teacher relationship quality of African American students and their parents. First, African American children in the early grades exhibit more under-controlled behavior and have more active and assertive interactional styles, a finding that has been replicated across different assessment sources and methods. Both African American teachers and Caucasian teachers rate African American students as having more behavioral difficulties ;. Differences in the parenting practices, communication styles, and educational beliefs between teachers and African American parents are a second possibility for lower teacher relatedness for African American students and parents. When parties do not share a common culture, it is more difficult to establish shared understanding and to build trust. Supporting this interpretation is the finding that ethnic congruence between teachers and students is associated with higher teacher ratings of closeness and lower ratings of student conflict and dependency. Third, some researchers report that African American parents communicate more frequently with teachers and are more likely to criticize teachers and the school than are Hispanic parents, who are more deferential. Teachers may be less comfortable with and accepting of the more assertive approach of African American parents relative to the more deferential style of Hispanic parents. Fourth, teachers may endorse ethnic or racial stereotypes about children, which may influence their feelings toward students and their parents and lead to behavioral self-fulfilling prophecies ;. Teachers in our sample may have expected less collaborative or more strained relationships with African American parents and students. These expectations may have resulted in fewer or less warm interactions with students and parents, which, in turn, led to lower levels of parent involvement and student classroom engagement. Regardless of the reasons for the relationship gap, these findings are of great concern. A recent research synthesis on school readiness reported that about one half of the test score gap between African American and Caucasian high school students is evident when children start school. Our results suggest that, rather than leveling the playing field, early social experiences in school may contribute to widening racial disparities in educational attainment. Study Limitations and Future Directions These findings need to be interpreted in the context of study limitations. Because participants were selected on the basis of scoring below average on a test of early literacy, our findings may not generalize to higher achieving students. Because three of the four measures of relationship constructs were completed by the teacher, who also completed ratings of child engagement, shared source may account for some of the association found between the relationship constructs and child engagement. Because measures of relationship quality and measures of engagement were taken at one point in time, alternative explanations for the associations cannot be ruled out. Three waves of data are necessary to provide strong support for mediational models. Additional waves of data would also address whether an effect for relationship constructs in first grade continues beyond the following year. On the basis of previous research ; , the hypothesized model included the reciprocal effect of teacher-rated engagement on the parent—teacher and student—teacher relationship. Additional reciprocal effects may also be at play. Similarly, children who enter school with greater academic competencies may elicit more positive responses from teachers, which, in turn, impacts their achievement. Studies that include measures of achievement, engagement, and relationship quality at a minimum of two time points are necessary to provide a stronger basis for testing reciprocal causal processes. Finally, observational measures of student—teacher and parent—teacher interactions as well as child engagement are needed to locate more precisely the processes that account for the observed effects. The teacher rating of engagement covers several specific processes that may account for why engagement mediated the association between relationship constructs and achievement. Perhaps students who experience supportive relationships with teachers try harder follow the rules, do their homework, listen to the teacher , or perhaps they are better able to cope with classroom stressors and, therefore, better able to concentrate on assignments and to attend to instruction. An additional limitation of the study is the lack of sufficient racial and ethnic diversity among the teachers to investigate whether these findings might be moderated by student—teacher ethnic or racial match. With only 6 African American children taught by African American teachers, we were unable to investigate the role of ethnic congruence on teacher perceptions of relationship constructs and child ability. Researchers who have included measures of relationship quality as well as involvement behaviors have reported stronger effects for measures of relationship quality than for measures of parent school involvement behaviors ; ;. Our findings emphasize the importance of improving the quality of the home—school relationship, especially for African American and low-income families. If results of this study are replicated in new samples, they would have implications for teacher preparation and teacher professional development. Teachers receive very little or no preparation in building successful alliances with parents or supportive and warm relationships with students. In a national study of 3,595 kindergarten teachers, found that although teachers were unlikely to receive training in building home—school connections, those who did were much more likely to use all types of strategies to promote a successful transition to school, including making personal contacts with parents. In a synthesis of the literature on early home—school connection, reported that the most individualized, relationship-building activities tend to be the least used and that urban schools and schools serving more minority children were least likely to use higher intensity contacts. Our findings suggest that an increased focus on helping teachers connect with students and their parents is one means of helping children at risk for academic failure get off to a good start in school. Thus, children in some classrooms and schools were tested earlier than children in other classrooms and schools. Compared with ordinary least squares regression, which assumes independent observations, the robust estimation method multiple linear regression under Mplus can take into account the nesting structure in our data i. 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Itasca, IL: Riverside Publishing; 2001. Woodcock—Muñoz Language Survey Normative Update. Itasca, IL: Riverside Publishing; 2001. Teacher and parent perceptions of behavior problems among a sample of African American, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic students. American Journal of Community Psychology. Bolded arrows indicate the hypothesized mediation effects; there are reciprocal relations between parent—teacher relationship and teacher-perceived engagement and between student—teacher relationship and teacher-perceived engagement. Asterisks indicate variables are dummy coded, with African American students as the reference group. Modified theoretical model with the relationship constructs and teacher-perceived engagement as mediators adjusted for dependency. The dashed paths indicate nonsignificant effects. Asterisks indicate variables are dummy coded, with African American students as the reference group. See caption for details on variables. Correlations absolute value equal to or larger than. The Woodcock—Johnson scores are W scores; the more interpretable corresponding reading and math age-standard scores are 97. Path coefficients α ̂ and β ̂ are nonstandardized.

School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. The internal consistency of these 10 items for our sample was. She provides SIOP training to her faculty and leads the SIOP Professional Learning Committee. Mediation in experimental and non-experimental custodes: New procedures and recommendations. This in turn it is hoped will create greater equity in ECE. EJ5055 13 Silverman, R.